---

 

Genetic modification, a scientific discipline of biotechnology, comprises a group of techniques used to investigate and/or modify the genetic constitution of cells or organisms. With the technical and enzymatic "tools" of genetic modification, it is possible to isolate, amplify, define, select, delete, insert, clone, rearrange or transfer specific DNA sequences. The introduction of DNA sequences into living cells from other organisms may result in production of proteins coded by the transferred DNA, because the genetic code is universal in all organisms. In this way genetic modification allows the production of cells or of organisms which are adapted to new situations or programmed to specific new tasks. The organisms bearing new genetic information are termed "recombinant" or "transgenic". Legislators agreed to call such transgenic organisms "genetically modified organisms" GMOs The international Biosafety Protocol uses the term Living Modified Organisms (LMO) to highlight their potential to multiply.

The term GMO (Genetically Modified Organism) refers to an organism whose natural genetic material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques. Bacteria, moulds, plants, insects, fish, or mammals can be genetically modified and as a result become transgenic or recombinant. GMO is the general term for such modified organisms (GM bacteria, GM crops etc). GMOs differ from their natural counterpart by one or several biological properties, being for example able to produce a new protein they were unable to produce before or on the opposite not producing a protein that was produced by the parent organism. The international Biosafety Protocol uses the term Living Modified Organisms (LMO) to highlight their potential to multiply and distinguish the organism from the product (e.g. food) prepared from them. Nevertheless, in short-cut formulation the term "GM food" is also used meaning food produced from GMO.

Genomics may be defined as the scientific study of genomes. A genome comprises the entire genetic material and genetic information of an organism. Genomics aims at identifying and analysing the role of genes in an organism's structure and growth in health and disease. Once the DNA sequence of the genome of an organism has been determined, the analysis of the DNA data allows a detailed understanding of the genetic information. Genomics helps to shed some light on the development and the functioning of organisms. Studies of model organisms help to improve the knowledge of human biology, thus setting the basis for the development of novel medical approaches.
Studying genomes of plants is necessary to improve their adaptation to specific human needs, to extreme conditions or their resistance to pests. Genomics also serves to optimise micro-organisms for more efficient production processes which require less energy and prevent environmental damage.

Seed producers and farmers are directly interested in growing transgenic plants as documented by the steadily increasing area cultured with transgenic crops, especially in North America, Argentina and China.
The expected advantages of transgenic crops are: These advantages could be especially important for the food security in developing countries. They should result in higher income of farmers when compared with conventional crops, as the improved yields should offset the higher cost for seeds and licenses. Transgenic plants with obvious benefits to western consumers are still in development.
Because of the concerns associated with the culture of transgenic plants, these expected advantages are questioned by certain NGOs and some farmers, especially those from organic agriculture.

Transgenic plants are obtained using recombinant DNA technology or cell fusion techniques to confer new genetic traits on a given plant variety. In conventional breeding, the genetic information of plants is changed e.g. by crossing or by mutation. Subsequently, the plants containing an improved trait are isolated by selection. During development of transgenic plants, specific techniques are used to introduce one or a few gene(s) containing the desired traits into the plant genome which comprises ten thousands of genes. The introduction of new genetic material from any other organism, such as another plant, a virus, a bacteria, or of DNA synthesized in the laboratory into plants would not be possible by classical breeding techniques. Introducing a novel genetic trait is performed by one of two basic techniques:

The new trait can be carried by a single gene, responsible for the synthesis of a given protein. An example are insect resistant Bt-plants. These plants express a Bt-gene derived from the Bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis . Bt-proteins have toxic effects specifically on certain pest insects (e.g. the corn borer causing severe damages on maize), thus protecting the transgenic plants. Further traits are herbicide tolerance, virus resistance and other agronomic qualities.
In any case, the selection of the successfully transformed plants and the regulated expression of the novel trait require the use of sophisticated DNA molecules.
Transgenic plants are obtained using recombinant DNA technology or cell fusion techniques to confer new genetic traits on a given plant variety. The introduction of new genetic material from any other organism, such as another plant, a virus, a bacteria, or of DNA synthesized in the laboratory into plants would not be possible by classical breeding techniques. Introducing a novel genetic trait is performed by one of two basic techniques:

Transgenic crops are developed to fulfill specific needs by improving conventional crops with assets which could not be so efficiently achieved with conventional breeding methods. In spite of the concerns associated with the culture of transgenic crops, their advantages can benefit not only farmers from developed and developing countries, but also the consumers, the environment and the scientists.

Cross-pollination is a natural fertilization process whereby wind or insects transfer the pollen from one flower to another. This event - also called horizontal gene transfer - is very common in nature. It represents a risk in the case of transgenic plants that are able to cross-pollinate conventional counterparts or wild relatives.
This risk depends on many factors such as Cross-pollination must be assessed case-by-case, taking the prevailing biogeographic conditions into consideration.

Transgenic crops are extensively characterized and controlled before they are launched into the market. The risk of health problems (toxicity or allergenicity) has been studied by the relevant scientific and authority organs (like FAO, WHO, EFSA, and others). They conclude that the potential risk of food prepared from approved GMOs is of the same or lower level as the risk of conventional food.
Any food may cause allergy. However, the most common allergy-inducing groups, the allergens present in peanuts, soybeans, shellfish, etc., are easy to identify and well characterized. The immune reaction they induce in susceptible organisms has also been extensively studied. The probability that such allergens will be introduced by genetic modification is very low and is tested systematically. The composition of the new proteins inserted in a transgenic crop is analysed and compared with known allergens. The digestibility of the transgenic plants and of derived products is assessed and their allergenicity carefully controlled in vitro and in animal testing. With all the tests which are requested by authorities to register a new transgenic plant, the presence of known allergens in GM plants used in food can be prevented.
The presence of bacterial antibiotic-resistance genes in certain transgenic crops, although not expressed in the plant itself represents another health concern. These are "selection marker genes" which were necessary to select the DNA vector containing the transgene during the construction of the transgenic plant. DNA present in the food is digested in the gastrointestinal tract and therefore extremely unlikely to transfer antibiotic resistance to gut bacteria.
On the other hand, the antibiotic resistance genes used in development of transgenic crops are naturally widespread and occur in many bacteria in the environment. These genes are thus taken up also with the normal bacteria attached to conventional food - completely without transgenic crops.
There is no evidence so far that selection marker genes transfer antibiotic resistance to bacteria and contribute to the development of multi-resistant "superbugs". However, as other methods are now available, the use of antibiotic resistance marker genes is now banned.

Genetically modified plants (most of them are presently crop plants) are designed to differ from their traditional counterparts only by the presence of one set of genes coding for proteins which are responsible for the trait of interest (e.g. insect resistance or herbicide tolerance) and its proper regulation. If the novel trait does not give to the plant a high selection advantage (for its survival and/or dispersal) the transgenic plant is considered as being unlikely to cause an adverse effect on the environment. A nicotine-free tobacco would probably fall in this category.
In contrast, the concern is serious for any novel plant variety introduced in a new environment, no matter whether produced by genetic engineering or by classical breeding techniques. If it improves the adaptation to the environmental conditions (resistance to drought for example), the transfer of the resistance to wild plants could generate new invasive weeds. The deliberate release of organisms into a new environment is submitted to rigorous authorization procedures including a comprehensive and appropriate risk assessment and the required risk management practices (monitoring among others).

Vitamins are chemically well-defined molecules which are identical irrespective of their origin and the production or isolation process. For their physiological activity and related health benefit, it is impossible to distinguish between natural, synthetic or biotechnologically produced vitamins, nutrients and food additives.
The commercialisation of vitamins or food additives is submitted to authorisation. They have to be of good quality, safe and nutritious. The procedures of authorisation take into account (among many other aspects) the purity of the substance and the absence of contaminants which may be toxic.

Biofarming (also written biopharming) is the use of transgenic plants for the production of high value proteins, new non-food products such as oral vaccines, veterinary products or industrial enzymes. Biofarming offers potential areas of diversification for the agricultural and horticultural industries.
Biological agriculture (also called organic farming) refers to the practices used in producing crops and livestock products. These practices rely on developing biological diversity in the field to disrupt habitats for pest organisms and on the purposeful maintenance and replenishment of soil fertility. The maintenance of buffer zones prevents inadvertent contamination from adjacent conventional fields. A detailed record keeping system tracks all products from the field to point of sale. Organic farmers are not allowed to use synthetic pesticides or fertilizers.
More…
At the site of the Organic Farming Research Foundation.
Example of safeguards discussed in December 2002 to assure corn engineered for pharmaceutical uses does not contaminate crops grown for food.

The volume and the characteristics of transgenic crops being grown in some countries as well as the natural conditions of wind or rain are possible causes of exposure of conventional or organic crops to traces of GM crops from neighbouring farms. An accidental co-mixing during the handling of seeds is an additional cause with severe consequences for the preservation of identity of related crops. The effects of transgenic crops on other types of agriculture are regarded by proponents of such types as irreversible. Many organic farmers are concerned that an adventitious presence of transgenes may affect their commercial interests.
The issue is extremely complex, and long-term effects of the adventitious dissemination of transgenes are still largely unknown. The assessment of the effects of such accidental escape is part of the studies required by national competent authorities for the approval of a new transgenic crop. Such risk assessments are complemented with the description of the specific measures foreseen to manage the co-existence of genetically modified, conventional and organic crops.
The problem of co-existence of different types of agriculture is not only scientific and practical but also political. The legislation has to be acceptable for stakeholders as different as the multinationals on the one hand and the organic farmers and NGOs including consumer organisations on the other hand.

Foodstuffs are labelled to enable consumers to obtain comprehensive information on the contents and the composition of food products, and to help them to make an informed choice.
On the European level, the regulation (CE 1829/2003 and 1830/2003) on traceability and food labelling of GMO derived food was adopted on September 22, 2003. It complements Directive 2001/18 EC on safety and labelling of GMO food and other directives on food safety and food labelling. They comply with other international agreements on the safety and labelling of food, as defined in the Codex Alimentarius.

The applications of biotechnology (and especially of genetic engineering) in agriculture, food and feed are often said to carry short-term and long-term risks or uncertainties for the environment. Some of these may be regarded as unpredictable and irreversible and as by some people as such unacceptable. Other considerations relate to the possible effects of GM food and feed on human and animal health. Some socio-economic effects are also a matter of concern.